How does Botticelli’s work reflect the values of the early Renaissance?– Humanism in Botticelli’s work

After the long duration of the dark Middle Age, Renaissance, a movement meaning ‘rebirth’ to revive the ancient Greek and Roman culture including classical literature, philosophy and science[1] took place in fifteenth century in Florence. Humanism, which includes values such as human consciousness and individualism was highly valued during this time, and became a prominent idea in art work. Botticelli, as one of the leading painters during the early Renaissance, incorporated these humanistic ideas into his work which included mythology paintings, religious paintings and portraits. Botticelli incorporated the idea of human consciousness into his mythological themed work by using the nude form with respect to antiquity as explained with the example The Birth of Venus (fig. 1). The mythological character Venus was also been used by Botticelli in his work including Primavera (fig.6) and Venus and Mars (fig. 2) as a symbol of the human consciousness. The Adoration of the magi (fig.3) serves as an example of Botticelli’s religious paintings produced with the idea of Humanistic Individualism. Botticelli’s narrative of Individualism is also reflected in his portraits, demonstrated in this essay with the example of Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder (fig.5).

Humanism, Art and Botticelli in Renaissance

Renaissance is a movement centered in Florence with the theme of Humanism in many areas, especially in the art world. The main focus of Renaissance is the rediscovery and reinterpretation of classical literature[2], which includes the work of Plato and other Greek and Roman philosophers. These works illustrate initial Humanistic ideas such as human values and human reasons[3]. After the Middle Age when Church were controlling of people’s thoughts and suppressed free ideas, people in early Renaissance began to realize their own values as human beings independent from the ideals set by the church[4]. As Hugh Honour and John Fleming wrote, Renaissance Humanists introduced ‘the new idea of self-reliance and civic virtue – civic and mundane, no chivalric or contemplative’[5]. The citizens of Florence took pride of themselves as human beings and became the pioneers to propagandize Humanism, leading the Renaissance revolution. During the early Renaissance, people from the middle class are more engaged in social activities and started to take active role in government[6]. The growth of the middle class in fourteenth century, thus, stimulated the further development of Greek and Roman Humanistic ideas with the ascent of Individualism (which is explained later in this section) into the early Renaissance Humanism[7].

Renaissance Humanists differed from the Medieval Humanists in that they not only encouraged the idea to imitate antiquity, the models from Greek and Roman time, in different fields, but also stressed the importance to improve ancient models and create innovative work of their own[8]. Renaissance Humanists introduced the concept of Human consciousness and individualism[9]. Human consciousness means that human value should be appreciated independently. The pride of human beauty, human reason, human influences in the society, human morality and human wisdom is perfectly expressed in Shakespeare’s Hamlet: “What a piece of work is a man. How noble in reason; how influence in faculty; in moving how express and admirable; in action how like an angel; in apprehension how like a god”. Individualism is defined as the realization of the uniqueness of each person. Evidences of the consciousness of individuality can be found in the biography, portraits and first-person writing during the early Renaissance.

With the influence of Humanism during the Renaissance, the art world also underwent a revolution with the increasing status of mythology paintings, the merging of classical and humanistic elements into religious paintings and the arising of portraits as an independent genre. As more and more artistic study on the Greek and Roma literature and Latin manuscripts contributes to the development of Humanism, the narrative and imitation of antiquity models became more and more celebrated in Renaissance art. The ascent of the patronage from the upper-middle class such as the Medici family, the richest and most powerful family in Florence, to ensure their influence[10] also leads to a prosperous in art world. From the time of Giotto and Dante, to the time of Leonardo and Michelangelo, the most brilliant artists in the history flourished during this period. The significance of painters had become more prominent due to the rise in demand of commissioned work including secular paintings such as mythology paintings and portraits as well as religious work[11]. Painters are no longer merely artisan[12] who are limited to formulaic religious iconography and produced work similar to each other. Instead, they started to add their own interpretation into their work with their study and understanding of ancient sculptures (since no ancient painting was discovered yet)[13]. Secular paintings which contains no religious element became more widely accepted. Mythology paintings appeared as a new theme with the emerging of Humanism, and were welcomed for its cultural humanistic beauty. The nude form and a mythological character Venus was used innovatively in paintings at this time. Renaissance painters also succeeded merging Individualism into religious paintings by adding patrons into their work. Portraits in the early Renaissance are painted as both symbol of the revival of antiquity and individualism[14].

To understand Botticelli’s Humanism ideas in his paintings, it is important to understand the origin of his humanism idea first. Landino Dante, the most representative early Renaissance poet, is one humanist who inspired Botticelli. Dante described the allegory of afterlife and expressed the appreciation for all highest human values such as virtue, knowledge, philosophy, love and glory in his poet Divina Commedia[15]. Botticelli wrote commentary on Dante’s work and drew illustrations which can be signs of Dante’s influence on Botticelli’s idea of Human consciousness. Botticelli’s work Primavera (fig.6) is a visionary narrative of Dante’s Earth Paradise in Divina Commedia[16]. Two others who played crucial roles in Humanism ideas of Botticelli were Marsilio Ficino and Lorenzo de’ Medici. According to Gombrich, Ficino is the spiritual mentor of Botticelli’s patron Lorenzo[17]. Lorenzo also received Neoplatonism training in the Platonic Academy which mainly studied Greek and Roman classical philosophy and further developed Neoplatonism—the reinterpretation of Platonic philosophy in the Renaissance context[18]. As each of Botticelli’s work must be approved by Lorenzo[19], Ficino’s Humanism were reflected in Botticelli’s work with the Humanist values including Human consciousness and Individualism along with Ficino’s interpretation of mythology, especially on Venus are narrated in Botticelli’s work. Since Botticelli was surrounded by these critical figures in the development history of Humanism, it is not surprising that his work is so fascinatedly filled with Humanistic elements such as Human consciousness and individualism and is such an amazing mixture of classism and Neoplatonism.

Human Consciousness in Botticelli’s mythology painting—The Nude Form and Venus

Botticelli used the Nude form in his mythology paintings as the symbol of the revival of antiquity and the appreciation of human values. Ancient Greeks and Romans used male nudity in statues of heroes and rulers. For instance, the statue of Emperor Commodus as Hercules (fig. 7) shows the power and authority of the contemporary leader Commodus. They also use the female figure to represent ancient art and literature[20]. However, during the Middle Age between Roman time and Renaissance, nudity had the opposite meaning. At that time, nudity was deemed to be rude, humiliating and represent human failing as the sexuality contained in it[21]. Botticelli was not restricted to the traditional medieval interpretation of nudity. He adopted from the antiquity and drew inspiration from Greek sculptures to create the nude Venus. In his The Birth of Venus (fig. 1), Venus emerges from the sea and lands on the ground. She is unclothed like a Greek statue with her right hand covering her breast. Her light-brown hair is flowing in the flower rain. Silent and melancholic, she stands in a white shell, which represents love. At the left upper side, Zephyr is giving the life spirit to her. He is also in the nude form, but not as muscular as Greek and Roman male statues. On the right side of the painting, Nymph Hour is placing a cloak on for Venus.

Botticelli used smooth but dynamic lines and bright colors to create the harmonious and peaceful scene. The nude Venus, is beautifully presented in front of viewers. Botticelli’s mastery in treating human figure, especially facial characteristic and in shading helps to show the softness of the female god. Venus, although undressed, is pure, innocent and classical but not erotic. The beauty of human body, the virtue of human beings, and the reason of human minds are conveyed thoroughly through the depiction of nude Venus.

One subject in Botticelli’s mythology paintings – Venus not only reflects Botticelli’s admiration and appreciation of antiquity, but also shows his zeal for Neoplatonism. In Platonism, Venus symbolizes intellectual love and a source of human desire. Neoplatonic interpretation can be found in the letter from Ficino wrote on Primavera( fig.6) to Lorenzo[22]: ‘… and Venus for Humanity….Her soul are Love and Charity, her eyes Dignity and Manimity, the hands Liberality and Magnificence, the Feet comeliess and Modesty. The whole, then, is Temperanu and Honesty, Charm and Splendour…’Botticelli’s Primavera (fig.6) might be the narrative of this painting. Venus in his paintings, thus, can be interpreted as a divine with all human virtues. Botticelli’s Venus represents the compliments of human values, it contains Botticelli’s human consciousness ideas.

The deeper understanding of Venus as a symbol of human consciousness can be found in Venus and Mars (fig. 2). It is also a mythology painting based on Roman allegory of beauty and valor[23]. Venus is in a white dress with golden lace. She is lying on the ground facing the sleeping Mars, the god of war, men and courage. Venus in this painting is not like the athletic and strong figures depicted in Greek statues. She appears as a female with love and grace. This painting is connected to Humanism theme that Venus as the symbol of love is able to conquer Mars, the symbol of discord[24]. Botticelli painted so carefully with his Neoplatonism idea that the worship which is previously limited to religious figures[25] can be seen here for Venus and Mars (fig. 2) in this painting. Venus in this painting is not just attractive, but appears as graceful as Virgin Mary. This painting, therefore, is also a superb unity of ideal classism and humanism.

Individualism in Botticelli’s portraits and religious paintings.

Botticelli’s Humanism, especially Individualism is also contained in his portrait paintings and religious paintings. The development of portraits into a separate genre was one of the trends throughout the study of classism inspired by the heads of emperors on Roman coins[26]. Portraits were a reflection of Individualism, and people during the Renaissance era desired to record their personal information. Although portraits were rare in the early Renaissance, Botticelli painted several portraits for the ruling Medici family members and injected individualism in these work. Additionally, although classism is not obvious in religious paintings, Botticelli still managed to merge Individualism into his religious paintings by putting the patrons and even himself into the paintings.

Adoration of the magi (fig.3), as one of Botticelli’s most successful work during his career, are an innovative religious painting reflecting Individualism. Although Botticelli painted various versions of Adoration of the magi (fig.3), the one produced between 1475 and 1478 for the Medici family will be used as an example.

A comparison of this work with another Gothic style Adoration of the magi (fig.4) of Gentile da Fabriano shows the humanism of Botticelli’s work in greater detail. Botticelli and Gentile’s Adoration of Magi tell the same biblical story that three kings pay homage to the infant Jesus. Gentile’s work shows the attempt to depict the facial expression of each person. The Virgin Mary and Jesus are in the left side of this painting surrounded by three kings. One of the kings is depicted to be kneeling before Jesus, adding to the vividness of the whole painting. The use of golden color in this painting is typical for a painting of the Gothic era. The landscape in the background with the fine depiction of horses and group of people in the front stage makes this painting more naturalistic. However, Gentile’s version is still restricted to the religious iconography.

Botticelli’s work is developed further with the element of individualism. While Adoration of the magi (fig.3) is a commissioned religious work from Medici family, it is more like a family portrait of Medici family. Figures in the painting are no longer only god and saints, family members of Medici and Botticelli himself are painted in the Adoration of the magi (fig.3). Botticelli made great progress in treating human figures. Every figure in this painting are with more naturalistic poses and facial characteristics, which can be a result of Individualism—everyone is distinctive. Each person tilts his head slightly, looking at each other or Jesus. Botticelli’s individualism can be also found in this painting since he is the only person staring at the viewers on the left bottom. The comparison of these two work demonstrates how realism develops and how Individualism is incorporated into the work from Gothic period to Renaissance.

Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder( fig.5) is one of Botticelli’s portraits that combines classism with individualism together. The man in the painting is proudly holding a golden medal with a classical pose, just like the pose in the ancient Roman coins. Corresponding to the classical pose, landscape in the background is of the latest Florentine style. The golden medal is a symbol of a ruling family[27]. The gaze of the man in the painting is determined and confident—he is conscious of his power, his virtue, his reason and wisdom as an individual, different from anyone else.

In conclusion, Humanism, as the main value of the early Renaissance, is showed in Botticelli’s work in two aspects—human consciousness and individualism in his mythology paintings, religious paintings and portraits. The appreciation of human values are reflected in Botticelli’s work with his use of nudity and iconographical meaning of Venus in his mythology paintings. Inspired by antiquity, Botticelli presented the viewers with religious paintings incorporating Individualism. Botticelli’s portraits also convey the sense of Individualism combined with classism. The accomplishment of Botticelli should be appreciated both for his gift in paintings and for his contributions in the fusion of humanism in Renaissance art.

List of Images

(fig. 1) Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1486, tempera on canvas, 172.5cm* 278.9cm, Uffizi, Florence.

( fig. 2 ) Sandro Botticelli, Venus and Mars, 1483, tempera on panel, 69cm*173cm, National Gallery, London.

(fig.3) Sandro Botticelli, The Adoration of the magi, 1475, tempera on panel, 111cm* 134cm, Uffizi, Florence.

(fig. 4) Gentile da Fabriano, Adoration of the Magi, 1423, tempera on panel, 203cm*282cm, Uffizi, Florence.

(fig.5) Sandro Botticelli, Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder, 1474-1475, tempera on panel, 57.5cm* 44cm, Uffizi, Florence.

( fig.6) Sandro Botticelli, Primavera,1482, tempera on panel, 202cm*314cm, Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

(fig. 7) Commodus as Hercules, c. 190 AD,marble, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Bibliography/FootNotes

[1] Frederick Binkerd Artz. 1966. Renaissance Humanism, 1300-1500. 1st ed. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1.

[2] Peter Burde. 1987. The Renaissance–(Studies In European History). 1st ed. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education LTD, 15.

[3] Artz, Renaissance Humanism, 1.

[4] Burde, The Renaissance–(Studies In European History), 13.

[5] Hugh Honour, and John Fleming. 1982. The Visual Arts. 1st ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 299.

[6] Artz, Renaissance Humanism, 1.

[7] Burde, The Renaissance–(Studies In European History), 59.

[8] Artz, Renaissance Humanism, 11.

[9] Burde, The Renaissance–(Studies In European History), 1.

[10] Neil Haughton. 2004. ‘Perceptions Of Beauty In Renaissance Art’. Journal Of Cosmetic Dermatology3: 230

[11] Honour, and Fleming, The Visual Arts, 351-353.

[12] Haughton, Perceptions Of Beauty In Renaissance Art, 230-241.

[13] Burde, The Renaissance–(Studies In European History), 20-21.

[14] Artz, Renaissance Humanism, 89.

[15] Max C Marmor. 2003. ‘From Purgatory To The “Primavera”: Some Observations On Botticelli And Dante’.Artibus Et Historiae 24 (48): 207.

[16] Marmor, ‘From Purgatory To The “Primavera” 199.

[17] Giorgio Vasari. Julia Conaway Bondanella, and Peter E Bondanella. 1998. The Lives Of The Artists. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 227.

[18] E.H Gombrich. 1945. ‘Botticelli’s Mythologies: A Study In The Neoplatonic Symbolism Of His Circle’.Journal Of The Warburg And Courtauld Institutes 8: 7.

[19] Laurence B Kanter. Hilliard T Goldfarb, and James Hankins. 1997. Botticelli’s Witness. 1st ed. Boston, Mass.: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, 9.

[20] Jane C Long. 2008. ‘Botticelli’s Birth Of Venus As Wedding Painting’. Aurora, The Journal Of The History Of Art, 8.

[21] Long, ‘Botticelli’s Birth Of Venus As Wedding Painting’, 8.

[22] Gombrich, ‘Botticelli’s Mythologies: A Study In The Neoplatonic Symbolism Of His Circle’, 17.

[23] J. R Hale. 1977. Italian Renaissance Painting From Masaccio To Titian. 1st ed. Oxford: Phaidon, 37.

[24] Erwin Panofsky. 1962. Studies In Iconology. 1st ed. New York: Harper & Row, 145.

[25] Gombrich, ‘Botticelli’s Mythologies: A Study In The Neoplatonic Symbolism Of His Circle’, 42.

[26] Burde, The Renaissance–(Studies In European History), 9.

[27] Bruno Santi. 1977. Botticelli. 1st ed. Firenze: Becocci, 8.